Taxonomy Kingdom : Animalia Phylum : Chordata Class : Mammalia Order : Rodentia Family : Muridae Genus : Bandicota Species : Bandicota indica
Common name/ vernacular name Greater Bandicoot Rat Large Bandicoot Rat (English) Wirok Hitam (Malay)
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species Least Concern
Bandicota indica (Bechstein, 1800)
Taxonomy Kingdom : Animalia Phylum : Chordata Class : Mammalia Order : Eulipotyphla Family : Erinaceidae Genus : Hylomys Species : Hylomys suillus
Common Name Lesser Gymnure Pig-tailed Shrew (English) Salak Ba'a (Malay) Short-tailed Gymnure (English) Tikus Babi (Malay)
Morphology/ physical description Its fur is mainly brown, and somewhat grizzled, with the underside being greyish. Its snout is pointed, and it bears numerous similar-sized teeth with which it can easily grip its prey. Its ears are rounded and relatively large. Its legs are short, and its digits bear sharp claws for digging. Its tail is short and bears few hairs.
https://www.ecologyasia.com/verts/mammals/short-tailed-gymnure
Taxonomy Kingdom : Animalia Phylum : Chordata Class : Mammalia Order : Primates Family : Cercopithecidae Genus : Macaca Species : Macaca fascicularis
Common Name/ Vernacular Name Long-Tailed Macaque (English) Beruk (Bajau) Kera (Malay) Crab-eating Macaque (English) Longtail Macaque Burmese Long-talied Macaque Con Song Long-tailed Macaque Dark-crowned Long-tailed Macaque Kemujan Long-tailed Macaque Lasia Long-tailed Macaque Maratua Long-tailed Macaque Nicobar Long-tailed Macaque Philippine Long-tailed Macaque Simeulue Long-tailed Macaque
Morphology/ physical description The body fur of long-tailed macaques tends to be grey-brown to reddish brown. These colors are always paler ventrally. The face is brownish-grey with cheek whiskers. The eyes are directed forward for binocular vision. The nose is flat and the nostrils are narrow and close together (catarrhine condition). Long-tailed macaques have shovel-shaped incisors, conspicuous canines, and bilophodont molars.
Habitat and Ecology Some of the habitats in which they have been found are primary forests, disturbed and secondary forests, and riverine and coastal forests of nipa palm and mangrove. Long-tailed macaques live most successfully in disturbed habitats and on the periphery of forests. This species has been observed drinking much water and eating crabs, they often live near bodies of water. Of the various habitats occupied by long-tailed macaques, the swamp forests seem to have the highest density of them
Type locality Indonesia, Sumatra, (Bengkulu)
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species Vulnerable
Conservation status/action There are nine national parks, nine reserves, and two sanctuaries in which some long-tailed macaques reside. Regardless of the type of habitat, there must be at least 500 squared kilometers of habitat necessary to support a viable population of 5,000 long-tailed macaques. This is the minimum size for a reserve for this species.
Ecosystem role To the extent that these animals are prey for other species, they may affect populations of those species. Macaca fascicularis may be an important predator in its ecosystem, and may have some impact on prey species.
Economic importance Long-tailed macaques, along with other species of macaques, have benefited humans through their use as research models in immunology, surgery, toxicology, and pharmacology. They are also important members of ecosystems and may serve as a basis for ecotourism ventures. They are sometimes still hunted for food.
Macaca fascicularis (Raffles, 1821)
https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Macaca_fascicularis/ https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/12551/204494260 https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Macaca_fascicularis/
Taxonomy Kingdom : Animalia Phylum : Chordata Class : Mammalia Family : Vespertilionidae Genus : Nyctalus Species : Nyctalus noctula
Common Name/ Vernacular Name Common Noctule Bat
Morphology and Physical Description Colors range from golden to dark brown above and usually pale brown below. Head and body length is 50-100 mm, tail length is 35-65 mm, and forearm length is 40-70 mm.
Habitat and Ecology A powerful flier. It dives steeply to catch large flying insects such as crickets and chafers, using echolocation to track them. It also forages on insects that are attracted to light or are found over rubbish dumps.
Economic Importance Noctule bats have been infected in the laboratory with the plague-causing bacteria Yersinia (=Pasteurella), which points to some pathological implications for humans. They may also be a source of transmission for Borrelia recurrentis (a bacteria causing relapsing fever in humans), when humans are parasitized by ticks and body lice that have previously parasitized the bats.
Species status/ Threats Roosts are lost with building renovations, habitat loss and pesticides use. Wind turbines are dangerous for the migration of the species.
List of Country Europe, Asia
Type locality France
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species Least concern
Nyctalus noctula (Schreber, 1774)
https://www.mammaldiversity.org/explore.html#species-id=1005607 https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Nyctalus_noctula/ https://batslife.eu/item/nyctalus-noctula/ https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Nyctalus_noctula/#economic_importance_negative https://batslife.eu/item/nyctalus-noctula/
Achyranthes aspera
Taxonomy Phylum :Tracheophyta Class :Magnoliopsida Order :Caryophyllales Family :Amaranthaceae Genus :Achyranthes Species :Achyranthes aspera
Synonyms Achyranthes acuminata E.Mey. ex Cooke & Wright, Achyranthes asperoides Pires de Lima, Achyranthes australis R.Br., Achyranthes canescens R.Br., Achyranthes daito-insularis Tawada, Achyranthes ellipticifolia Stokes, Achyranthes fruticosa Desf., Achyranthes grandifolia Moq., Achyranthes obovata Peter [Illegitimate], Achyranthes obovatifolia Stokes, Achyranthes okinawensis Tawada, Achyranthes robusta C.H.Wright, Achyranthes sicula Roth, Achyranthes tenuifolia Steud. [Invalid], Cadelaria punctata Raf., Centrostachys aspera (L.) Standl., Centrostachys australis (R.Br.) Standl., Centrostachys canescens (R.Br.) Standl., Centrostachys grandifolia (Moq.) Standl., Centrostachys indica (L.) Standl., Stachyarpagophora aspera (L.) M.Gómez
Common name Ara songsang, Nyarang sunsang , Arasongsang, Nyarang songsang, Nyarang sunsang,Prickly chaff flower, Colic weed, Cow pimpler, Devils whip, Man better man, Prickly chaff-flower, Rough chaff flower, Rough chaff tree, Soldier rod, Washerman’s plant
Characteristics An annual to perennial herb which can grow up to 30-120 cm tall. It is with angular stem, ribbed, stiff, with thickened nodes, variably pubescent and reddish-brown.
Morphology Leaves Ovate-obovate or elliptical-oblong, measuring 1-10 cm x 1-5 cm, with attenuate base, with obtuse apex or acute, hairless to densely hairy and with 5-15 mm long petiole. The tepals are ovate-lance-shaped, measure 3.5-6.5 mm long, 3-veined, green, pungent in fruit and the pseudo-staminodes are with a fimbriate scale. The pericarp is oblong, about 3 mm long and dark brown. Spike Terminal and axillary, measures about 10-75 cm long, including a peduncle 0.5-15 cm long. The rachis is stiff, ribbed and more or less densely white hairy. The ovate bracts are 2-3.5 mm long, acuminate at apex, not pungent and silvery. The bracteoles are ovate, with spines 2.5-4.5 mm long, sharp, with basal wing adnate to spine which is easily detaching and measuring 1-2 mm long.
Chemical compound Shoot contains aliphatic dihydroxyketone, 36,47-dihydroxyhenpentacontan-4-one, tritriacontanol, essential oil, a long chain alcohol, 17-pentatriacontanol, 27-cyclohexylheptacosan-7-ol, 16-hydroxy-26-methylheptacosan-2-one, 4-methylheptatriacont-1-en-10-ol and tetracontanol-2. Ecdysterone was found in the seeds, stem, leaves and root. Chloroform extract of the stem contains pentatriacontan, 6-pentatriacontanone, hexatriacontane and triacontane. Flavonoids and alkaloids were found in the inflorescence. aerial parts has been reported to contain saponins. seeds has been reported to contain protein with amino acid contents of leucine, isoleucine, phenylalanine and valine while tryptophan and sulphur amino acid (methionine and cystine) root contains oleanolic acid as the aglycone from the saponin, alkaloids but no flavonoids. powder contained high levels of manganese, magnesium, zinc, calcium and phosphorus in comparison to those of common vegetables and plants.
Plant part used Leaves, roots, twigs and seeds
Traditional uses An antipyretic, an anti-inflammatory agent, a diuretic and for the treatment of constipation, fever (especially malarial fever), bronchitis, sprains, dysentery, asthma, hypertension, diabetes and as wound dressing. The whole plant is used in the treatment of diabetes and as a blood purifier. The whole plant is dried and burnt to an ash which is then mixed with common salt and massaged onto the gums and tooth area to relieve toothache while the stem is used as a tooth brush. The crushed leaves are used as a dressing to promote blood clotting
Medicinal uses Leaf extracts help in thyroid hormones activity by increasing body weights, hepatic protein content and serum glucose levels. Methanol extract of A. aspera leaves (3 and 5.5 g/kg body weight, p.o.) showed anti-fertility activity, 50% ethanolic extract elicited reproductive toxicity by inhibit male reproduction ability activity by treating the reduced sperm count, reduced weight of epididymis, reduced serum testosterone and reduced testicular 3b-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity. Powdered whole plant of A. aspera (2, 3 & 4 g/kg) and its water and methanol extracts (at doses equivalent to 4 g/kg) caused dose-dependent reductions in blood glucose levels in normal and alloxan diabetic with acetohexamide used as the standard antidiabetic drug. The ethanolic extract of A. aspera (100 – 500 mg/kg) showed anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic activity The achyranthine and the entire plant showed antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococuss heamolyticus and Bacillus typhosus. -The cystone (400 and 500 mg/kg, p.o.) produced a significant increase in urine volume and also significantly increased sodium, potassium and calcium excretion.
List of country Malaysia, Australia and America
Achyranthes aspera (Linnaeus, 1753)
https://www.globinmed.com/medicinal_herbs/achyranthes-aspera-l-105989/ https://www.nparks.gov.sg/florafaunaweb/flora/5/9/5967
Taxonomy Phylum :Tracheophyta Class :Polypodiopsida Order :Polypodiales Family :Pteridaceae Genus :Acrostichum Species :Acrostichum aureum
Synonyms Acrostichum guineense Gaudich, Acrostichum inaequale Willd, Chrysodium aureum (L.) Mett, Chrysodium inaequale (Willd.), Fée Chrysodium vulgare Fée
Common name Piai raya, Piai lasa, Larat, Pebisi, Paku bulu emas, Paku laut, Peye, Piai, Umbi piai , Umbi peye, Mangrove fern, Golden leather fern, Swamp fern
Characteristics The crown is erect and very large.
Morphology Fronds Pinnate, rigid, coriaceous, glabrous, 0.9–1.8m long and 30cm wide, with a rigid naked strip 30–60cm long. The pinnae oblong-lanceolate, the lower shortly stalked and barren, 15–35cm long and 2.5–5.0cm wide; the upper fertile, almost sessile, one 10–15cm long, 1.5–2.5 cm broad, with a recurved margin all rounded and obtuse, or mucronat at the apex, rounded or shortly cuneate at the base and with the margin entire. The mid-rib conspicuous; veinlets often obtuse, anastomosing freely into small irregular areolae, but without any main veins, or any free veinlets. The fertile pinnae wholly occupied with sori except the mid-rib.
Chemical compound Ethanol extract of A. aureum has been reported to contain reducing sugars, alkaloids, glycosides, saponins, tannins, steroids, flavonoids, gums and terpenoids. Methanol extract on the leaf parts of A. aureum contains patriscabratine, (2-acetamido-3-phenylpropyl) 2- benzamido-3-phenylpropanoate, (2R,3S)-sulfated pterosin C and tetracosane.
Plant part used Rhizomes and leaves
Traditional uses The powdered or granted rhizomes of A. aureum were used to treat wounds, non-healing ulcers and boils. The frond is applied over venomous snakebites as an antidote. The fertile fronds and roots are also used traditionally for syphilitic ulcers. Treat sore throat, chest pains, elephantiasis, purgative and febrifuge. Leaves of A. aureum were used to cure cloudy urine in women.
Medicinal uses Acetic acid induced writhing test in mice was used for determining the analgesic activity. Ethanol extract of A. aureum were applied on carrageenan-induced inflammation rat models to study anti-inflammatory activity. Growth inhibition of bacteria was tested in a disc diffusion method where, the ethanolic extract of A. aureum showed maximum activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, gram-negative bacteria. While the acetone and methanolic extracts of A. aureum showed moderate level of inhibition towards Escherichia coli.
List of country Caribbean, Southeast Asia, Australasia, East and West Africa
Acrostichum aureum (Linnaeus,1753)
https://www.mybis.gov.my/sp/8710 https://www.globinmed.com/medicinal_herbs/acrostichum-aureum-l/ http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=235080 https://www.nparks.gov.sg/florafaunaweb/flora/1/5/1535 https://www.gbif.org/species/2651706 https://www.inatu...g/photos/69630600
Adenanthera pavonina
Taxonomy Phylum :Tracheophyta Class :Magnoliopsida Order :Fabales Family :Fabaceae Genus :Adenanthera Species :Adenanthera pavonina
Synonyms Adenanthera gersenii Scheff. Corallaria parvifolia Rumph.
Common name Saga tumpul (Peninsular), Coralwood , Bean tree, Peacock tree, Circassian bean
Characteristics A small to medium-sized trees that can reach up to 30(-40) m tall. It is rarely shrubs.
Morphology Leaves Arranged spirally, bipinnate and without glands. The first 2 leaves are arranged opposite while the subsequent ones are arranged spirally. The first few leaves are pinnate while the subsequent ones are bipinnate. The leaflets are alternate and entire. The stipules are small and caducous. Inflorescence Terminal and axillary, consists of many-flowered, simple, spike-like racemes, solitary or few together. The flowers are 5-merous, small and with jointed pedicels. The sepal lobes are valvate as well as the petals. There are 10 free stamens. The ovary is superior, 1-locular and with many ovules and simple style. Fruit A strap-shaped, many-seeded pod, straight to spirally twisted and dehiscent along both sutures. Seed Red or red and black, shiny and broadly ellipsoid to broadly obovoid or orbicular. The seedling is with epigeal germination. The cotyledons are emergent and fleshy while the hypocotyl is elongated.
Chemical compound 1,2-diacylglycerols, 1,3-diacylglycerols, 24-epiclerosterol, 24-methyl cholesterol, beta-sitosterol, docosanoic acid, eicosanoic acid, eicosenoic acid, eicosadienoic acid, isofucosterol, lignoicerotic acid, linoleic acid, lysophosphatidylcholine, myristic acid, oleic acid, palmitic acid, palmitoleic acid, pavonin, pentadecanoic acid, phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, stearic acid, stigmasterol, sitosterol and triacylglycerols
Plant part used Leaves, bark and seeds
Traditional uses The leaves and seeds of A. pavonia had been used in the treatment of rheumatism and gout. Powdered seeds is also used for treatment of abscesses. The bark is considered a tonic while the seeds in powdered form is used in treatment of headaches.
Medicinal uses Methanol extract of of A. pavonia seeds was evaluated for its anti-inflammatory effects in animal models. Ethanol extract of A. pavonia leaves also has anti-inflammatory activity which could possibly be due to the presence of active constituents like β-sitosterol and stigmasterol and probably also due to the inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis. In the acetic acid-induced writhing in mice it was found that the methanolic extract of the seeds of A. pavonia could inhibit it. Additionally, both the early and late phase of the formalin-induced paw.
List of country Sri Lanka, Burma, Indo-China, Southern China, Thailand,Malesia(except for Philippines), India and Africa
Adenanthera pavonina (Linnaeus,1753)
https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/37764546 https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/138728637 https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/100246662 https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/gallery?taxon_key=2951846 https://www.globinmed.com/medicinal_herbs/adenanthera-pavonina-l-105801/
Adenostemma viscosum
Taxonomy Phylum :Tracheophyta Class :Magnoliopsida Order :Asterales Family :Asteraceae Genus :Adenostemma Species :Adenostemma viscosum
Synonyms Adenostemma dregei DC., Adenostemma glutinosum DC., Adenostemma macrophyllum (Blume) DC., Adenostemma microcephalum DC., Adenostemma natalense DC., Adenostemma ovatum Miq., Adenostemma parviflorum (Blume) DC., Adenostemma perrottetii DC., Ageratum strictum Sims, Ethulia aquatica Roxb. ex DC., Lavenia glutinosa Gaudich., Lavenia macrophylla Blume, Lavenia parviflora Blume, Lavenia viscida Buch.-Ham.
Common name Rumput tahi babi, Daun susu babi, Rumput pasir, Dung weed
Characteristics An annual or sometimes perennial herb that can reach a height of between 30-100 cm and often rooting at the lower nodes.
Morphology Leaves Simple where the lower leaves are opposite while the upper ones are alternate. The leaves form is broad elliptical to oblong and broadly egg-shaped and measure about 4-20 cm x 3-12 cm. The leaves base is rounded-cuneate, the apex is acute to obtuse and margins are dentate to serrate. The leaf stalk size of the lower leaves is up to 9 cm long while the upper leaves are almost stalkless. There are no stipules. Inflorescence Consisting of heads in a lax terminal paniculate corymb. The inflorescence stalk measures 1-4 cm long. The ring of its bracts is shaped like a bell or cup-shaped, it has 2-seriate, scales sub-equal, herbaceous, and more or less connate at the base. The glandular head is measures about 3-7 mm x 6-10 mm that about 30-flowered. The flowers are all tubular with petals about 1.5-2 mm long and divided into 4, on the outside with glandular hairs in white or violet. It has 5 stamens with the ovary at the inferior of it style bifid- its branches are slender and long, thickened at the top. Fruit Small, obovate-oblong in shape, irregularly triangular with measures about 2.5-4 mm x 1 mm. It is glandular when young but afterwards smooth or warty and crowned with a pappus consisting of a few clavate setae which usually thickened at the top and glandular. The seedling is with epigeal germination.
Chemical compound 11-Hydroxylated kauranic acids, viz, ent-11α-hydroxy-15 α -acetoxykaur-16-en-19-oic acid, ent-11α, 15 α -dihydroxykaur-16-en-19-oic acid, (l6R)-ent-11α -hydroxy-15-oxokauran-19-oic acid and ent-11α -hydroxy-15-oxokaur-16-en-10-oic acid and their glycosides.
Plant part used Whole plant, leaves and roots.
Traditional uses Leaves are boiled and rubbed on the skin to relieve itch and treat infected sores and the whole body is rubbed in case of fever. In Sabah, the leaf extract is given to prevent infections after childbirth. The leaves are chewed against dysentery, or together with those of Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. and Phyllanthus urinaria L. against colic. The leaves are used as a lotion to arrest baldness while leaves paste is used to poultice sun-burned skin, scorched and are applied to boils and ulcers to ripen them. The leaves are also used for treating palpitations, dysuria, toothache, aphthae and sore throats. A. viscosum leaves are eaten as a vegetable, but always in combination with other vegetables, because of their bitterness. The leaves are also applied to hair during washing to prevent hair falls. The leaves are taken with some salt for sore throat. A decoction of the A. viscosum root is traditionally used for stomachache. The roots are chewed alone or together with Piper betle leaves and ginger to treat cough. The roots are also chewed with a little areca nut and some lime to treat coughs.
List of country Pakistan, India, Japan, Southeast Asia, Australia and the Pacific Islands Tropical Africa
Adenostemma viscosum ( J. R. Forst. & G. Forst.,1775)
https://mediaphoto.mnhn.fr/media/1589227791626AIFu2rSDigMWRBm1 https://www.globinmed.com/medicinal_herbs/adenostemma-viscosum-j-r-forst-g-forst/ https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/taxonomy?taxon_key=3094604 http://www.westafricanplants.senckenberg.de/images/pictures/aste_adenostemma_viscosum_rvbli_4156_10_3688_68601d.jpg https://www.mybis.gov.my/sp/39720
Taxonomy Phylum :Tracheophyta Class :Magnoliopsida Order :Oxalidales Family :Connaraceae Genus :Agelaea Species :Agelaea macrophylla
Synonyms Agelaea trinervis (Lianos) Merr., Agelaea diepenhorstii King, Agelaea hullettii King, Agelaea sarawakensis Merr., Agelaea wallichii Hook.f., Castanola hullettii (King) Schellenb., Castanola macrophylla (Zoll.) Schellenb., Castanola wallichii (Hook.f.) Schellenb., Connarus diepenhorstii Miq., Erythrostigma macrophylla Zoll., Erythrostigma macrophyllum Zoll., Hemiandrina hullettii (King) G. Schellenb.
Common name Akar pinang kutai, Akar nyamok, Pinang kotai, Akar pinang ketul
Characteristics A large liana with stem up to 4 cm in diametre. The leaf stalk is up to 15 cm long while the stipules are absent.
Morphology Leaves With three leaflets. The leaflets are egg-shaped to elliptical-oblong, about 4-34 cm x 2-14 cm. They are entire. The upper surface has many mucous cells, which looks like small pits in dried material.
Inflorescence An axillary, paniculate and often several together in the axil of a sometimes-rudimentary leaf, up to 5 cm long.
Flowers Bisexual, (4-)5-merous, up to 6 mm long, sweet-scented and more or less heterodistylous. Pedicels are jointed. The sepals are nearly free. Petals are much longer than sepals, free and whitish. There are 10 stamens, shortly united at base with 5 are slightly longer than the other 5. The carpels are 5, superior and free.
Fruit Consisting of 1-5 follicles, obovoid, with or without a beak at the apex, velvety, orange to red, dehiscing by a ventral suture and 1-seeded.
Seeds Fleshy, yellow to red testa in lower part and black but glossy testa in upper part. They are without endosperm. The cotyledons are thick and planoconvex.
List of country Indo-China, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, Bali, Borneo, the Moluccas and the Philippines.
Agelaea macrophylla (Leenh,1958)
https://www.globinmed.com/medicinal_herbs/agelaea-macrophylla-zoll-leenh-r/ https://www.mybis.gov.my/sp/23010 https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/2873792304 https://www.nparks.gov.sg/florafaunaweb/flora/7/9/7978 http://www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:264086-1
Ageratum conyzoides
Taxonomy Phylum :Tracheophyta Class :Magnoliopsida Order :Asterales Family :Asteraceae Genus :Ageratum Species :Ageratum conyzoides
Synonyms Ageratum album Hort.Berol. ex Hornem., Ageratum album steudel [Invalid], Ageratum arsenei B.L.Rob., Ageratum brachystephanum Regel, Ageratum ciliare L., Ageratum ciliare Lour., Ageratum coeruleum Desf. [Illegitimate], Ageratum conyzoides f. album (Willd.) B.L.Rob., Ageratum conyzoides f. conyzoides, Ageratum conyzoides var. conyzoides, Ageratum conyzoides subsp. conyzoides, Ageratum conyzoides var. hirtum (Lam.) DC., Ageratum conyzoides var. inaequipaleaceum Hieron., Ageratum conyzoides f. obtusifolia (Lam.) Miq., Ageratum conyzoides var. pilosum Blume, Ageratum cordifolium Roxb., Ageratum hirsutum Lam., Ageratum hirsutum Poiret, Ageratum hirsutum Poir., Ageratum hirtum Lam. [Illegitimate], Ageratum humile Larran., Ageratum humile Salisb. [Illegitimate], Ageratum humile Larrañaga, Ageratum iltisii R.M.King & H.Rob., Ageratum latifolium Cav., Ageratum latifolium var. galapageium B.L.Rob., Ageratum latifolium var. latifolium, Ageratum microcarpum (Benth. Ex Benth.) Hemsl., Ageratum muticum Griseb., Ageratum nanum Hort. Ex Sch.Bip. [Illegitimate], Ageratum obtusifolium Lam., Ageratum odoratum Vilm., Ageratum odoratum Bailly, Ageratum suffruticosum Regel, Alomia microcarpa f. torresii Standl., Cacalia mentrasto Vell. Conc., Caelestina latifolia (Cav.) Benth. ex Oerst., Caelestina microcarpa Benth. ex Benth. [Illegitimate], Caelestina microcarpa Benth. xx Oerst., Caelestina suffruticosa Sweet [Illegitimate], Carelia brachystephana (Regel) Kuntze, Carelia conyzoides (L.) Kuntze, Carelia mutica (Griseb.) Kuntze, Eupatorium conyzoides (L.) E.H.L.Krause [Illegitimate], Eupatorium conyzoides (L.) E.H. Krause, Eupatorium paleaceum Sessé & Moc., Sparganophorus obtusifolius Lag.
Common name Daun misai kuching, rumput jalang, rumput pereh jarang, rumput sekedok, sekedok, selaseh dandi, selasik dandi, senarong kambing, sianggit, tahi anjing, tahi ayam, tombok tombok jantan; oran, serak semalam, suokning (Sarawak) , Appa grass, bastard arimony, Billy-goat weed, blueweed, conyzoid floss-flower, goat weed, tropic ageratum, white dung herb, white weed
Characteristics An annual erect herb that sometimes is decumbent and rooting at the base. It can reach up to 120(-150) cm tall.
Morphology Leaves Egg-shaped, triangular-ovate or rhomboid-ovate, size (0.5-)1-10 cm x 0.5-7 cm, with obtuse or rounded base.
Flowering head About 4-6 mm long. The number of flowers is 60-75. The outermost ring of the bract is beset with only simple non-gland hairs while the inner bracts are with abruptly contracted apex. The petal is between 1-2.5 mm long.
Fruit Hairless or very sparingly hairy
Chemical compound Flavonoids, alkaloids, coumarins, essential oils, tannins, chromenes, benzofurans and terpenoids. The main chemicals found in the plant are: 6,7-dimethoxy-2,2-dimethylchromene, 6-demetoxyageratochromene, 6-vinyl-demethoxy-ageratochromene, ageratochromene (precocene II), α-cubebene, α -pinene, α -terpinene, β-caryophyllene, β -cubebene, β-elemene, β-farnesene, β-myrcene, β-pinene, β-selinene, β-sitosterol, cadinene, caryophyllene-oxide, conyzorigin, coumarin, dotriacontene, endo-borneol, endo-bornyl-acetate, ethyl-eugenol, ethyl-vanillin, farnesol, friedelin, HCN, hexadecenoic-acid, kaempferol, kaempferol-3,7-diglucoside, kaempferol-3-o-rhamnosylglucoside, linoleic-acid, quercetin, quercetin-3,7-diglucoside, and quercetin-3-o-rhamnosylglucoside, and 5,6,7,8,3′,4′,5′-heptamethoxyflavone. The light petroleum extract of A. conyzoides has been reported to contain friedelin, sitosterol and stigmasterol.
Plant part used Leaves, roots, and aerial parts
Traditional uses A. conyzoides is used to treat fever, rheumatism, headache, colic, wounds caused by burns, dyspepsia, eye problem, uterine disorders and pneumonia. This plant is used in folk remedies as a purgative, febrifuge, for ophthalmia, treatment of ulcers and as a wound dressing. A decoction of the plant is taken internally to treat diarrheal and to relieve pain associated with the navel in children. A. conyzoides is also used to treat prostate problems and is given to women after childbirth and for promoting menstruation.
Medicinal uses The wound healing properties of methanolic extracts of A. conyzoides leaves were compared to honey. Hydroalcoholic extract of A. conyzoides leaves has been reported to exhibit anti-inflammatory activity on subacute (cotton pellet-induced granuloma) and chronic (formaldehyde-induced arthritis)
List of country Central and South America, but now is a pantropical weed that is very common throughout India, Burma (Myanmar), Indo-China, southern China, Thailand and Malesia.
Ageratum conyzoides (Linnaeus,1753)
https://www.globinmed.com/medicinal_herbs/ageratum-conyzoides-l-l/ https://www.gbif.org/occurrence/search?taxon_key=5401673 https://www.nparks.gov.sg/florafaunaweb/flora/5/1/5183
Taxonomy Phylum :Tracheophyta Class :Magnoliopsida Order :Sapindales Family :Meliaceae Genus :Aglaia Species :Aglaia lawii
Aglaia lawii (C.J.Saldanha & D.H.Nicolson, Fl. Hassan Distr.,1976)
Allamanda cathartica
Taxonomy Phylum :Tracheophyta Class :Magnoliopsida Order :Gentianales Family :Apocynaceae Genus :Allamanda Species :Allamanda cathartica
Synonyms Allamanda aubletii Pohl, Allamanda chelsonii K.Koch [Invalid], Allamanda grandiflora (Aubl.) Lam. [Illegitimate], Allamanda hendersonii W.Bull ex Dombrain, Allamanda latifolia C.Presl, Allamanda linnaei Pohl, Allamanda schottii Hook. [Illegitimate], Allamanda wardleyana Lebas, Allamanda williamsii auct., Echites salicifolius Willd. ex Roem. & Schult., Echites verticillatus Sessé & Moc., Orelia grandiflora Aubl. [Illegitimate].
Common name Akar chempaka hutan, akar chempaka kuning, bunga akar kuning, Allamanda, buttercup, common allamanda, golden trumpet vine, golden trumpet, yellow allamanda, yellow bell, cherries jubilee allamanda
Characteristics A climbing shrub with sticky, white latex. It can grow up to 50m in length.
Morphology Leaves Dark-green in colour, tapering at the base with acute drip tip. Length up to 15 cm and are arranged in whorls at the nodes.
Flowers Bell-shaped, brilliant yellow in colour, 5-lobed and measures up to 10 cm long.
Fruits Rarely seen, 7cm, bristly seedpod that splits open to release the flat, brown and winged seeds.
Plant part used Leaves and latex
Traditional uses Decoction of the A. cathartica leaves has been used as a purgative or emetic. White latex of A. cathartica was once used to treat worm infestation but the practice has been stopped because of the vomiting and diarrhoea it caused. A steaming infusion is used to relieve coughs and headaches by allowing the patient to breathe in the vapour. A. cathartica has been planted and introduce globally as an ornamental plant.
List of country Brazil
Allamanda cathartica (Linnaeus,1753)
https://www.gbif.org/species/3169836 https://www.globinmed.com/medicinal_herbs/allamanda-cathartica-l/ https://www.nparks.gov.sg/florafaunaweb/flora/1/3/1303
Taxonomy Phylum :Magnoliophyta Class :Liliopsida Order :Asparagales Family :Amarylidaceae Genus :Allium Species :Allium sativum
Synonyms Allium arenarium Sadler ex Rchb. [Invalid], Allium controversum Schrad. ex Willd., Allium longicuspis Regel, Allium ophioscorodon Link, Allium pekinense Prokh., Porrum ophioscorodon (Link) Rchb., Porrum sativum (L.) Rchb. [Illegitimate]
Common name Bawang putih, bawang china, bawang puteh, garlic, cultivated garlic
Allium sativum (Linnaeus,1753)
Taxonomy Phylum :Tracheophyta Class :Liliopsida Order :Asparagales Family :Amarylidaceae Genus :Allium Species :Allium tuberosum
Synonyms Allium angulosum Lour. [Illegitimate], Allium argyi H.Lév., Allium chinense Maxim. [Illegitimate], Allium clarkei Hook.f., Allium roxburghii Kunth, Allium sulvia Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don, Allium tricoccum Blanco, Allium tuberosum Roxb. [Illegitimate], Allium tuberosum f. yezoense (Nakai) M.Hiroe, Allium uliginosum G.Don, Allium yesoense Nakai, Allium yezoense Nakai, Nothoscordum sulvia (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) Kunth
Common name Bawang kuchai, fragrant- flowered garlic, sweet leek, chinese chives
Characteristics A perennial herb which forms dense clumps. It is 20-40 cm tall with a prominently spreading rhizome from where thick, long and persistent roots emerge.
Morphology Leaves Have 4-9 foliage which are distichous, linear, measuring 13-45 cm x 2-10 mm, flat above, slightly keeled below, not folded lengthwise and suberect or curved. There is 1 peduncle that arises from ground. It is com­pressed, with 2 longitudinal ribs, up to 50 cm long and solid.
Inflorescence 3-5 cm in diameter, umbellate, many-flowered and without bulbils. The spathe is short, per­sistent and opens with 1-3 valves. The pedicels are 14-35 mm long and subequal.
Flowers White, widely opened, star-like and slightly fragrant. The tepals are oblong to ovate and measure 6 mm x 3 mm. The stamens and pistil are up to the length of the tepals.
Fruit Obovoid, measures 5-6 mm long and wide.
Seed Irregularly depressed spherical, measures 3-4 mm long and black.
List of country China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Korea, Nepal, Philippines, Taiwan, Thailand and United States.
Allium tuberosum (Rottler ex Spreng,1825)
https://www.globinmed.com/medicinal_herbs/allium-tuberosum-rottler-ex-spreng-r/ https://www.gbif.org/species/2856297
Allomorphia malaccensis
Taxonomy Phylum :Tracheophyta Class :Magnoliopsida Order :Myrtales Family :Melastomataceae Genus :Oxyspora Species :Allomorphia malaccensis
Common name Keduduk gajah, senduduk gajah, tengkuk biawak, pakan rimba, panghong, endebi, lidah buaya, senduduk hutan, keduduk hutan, kayu kadok gajah.
Characteristics A shrub which can grow up to 6 feet tall.
Morphology Leaves Ovate-acuminate with the base usually rounded or very shortly narrow and they measures 25cm long and 15cm wide and their petioles are 7.5-10cm long. There are 5 nerves which are prominent below.
Flowers In small cymes, small, yellowish-green or white in colour. The calyx is goblet shaped measures 0.25cm long and lobes are triangular in shape. The petals are oblong-ovate.
Capsules Urn-shaped and ribbed.
Plant part used Leaves and roots
Traditional uses Used to treat leprosy and parturition (child birth). Decoction of the roots given to treat arthralgia in the elderly. The same decoction was given to women after delivery. Leprosy was treated using plant probably in the form of a poultice.
List of country Malaysia
Allomorphia malaccensis (Ridl.,1918)
https://www.globinmed.com/medicinal_herbs/allomorphia-malaccensis-ridl/ https://www.gbif.org/species/3859938
Taxonomy Phylum :Tracheophyta Class :Magnoliopsida Order :Sapindales Family :Sapindaceae Genus :Allophylus Species :Allophylus cobbe
Synonyms Allophylus serrulatus Radlk.,Allophylus zimmermannianus Gilg ex Engl.,Aphania neoebudica Guillaumin,Aporetica gemellaDC., Cnesmocarpus excelsusZipp. ex Blume,Diplocardia excelsaZipp. ex Blume,Ornitrophe glabra Roxb.,Ornitrophe schmidelia Pers.,Ornitrophe serrata Roxb.,Ornitrophe villosa Roxb.,Picrodendron arboreum(Mill.) Planch.,Rhus cobbeL..,Schmidelia cobbe(L.) DC.,Schmidelia glabra(Roxb.) Steud.,Schmidelia grossedentata Turcz.,Schmidelia macrophylla Zipp. ex Span.,Schmidelia obovata A.Gray,Schmidelia parviflora Zipp. ex Span.,Schmidelia racemosaL.,Schmidelia serrata(Roxb.) DC.,Schmidelia ternata(J.R.Forst. & G.Forst.) Cambess.,Usubis triphylla Burm.f.
Common name Chinchang, chunkil, kelampu, tit-berry
Characteristics A monoecious or dioecious, evergreen to partly deciduous, shrub or small to medium-sized tree that can reach up to measures 25 m tall. It is sometimes a woody climber.
Allophylus cobbe (Raeusch.,1797)
https://www.globinmed.com/medicinal_herbs/allophylus-cobbe-l-raeusch/ https://www.mybis.gov.my/sp/5600
Taxonomy Phylum :Tracheophyta Class :Liliopsida Order :Asparagales Family :Asphodelaceae Genus :Aloe Species :Aloe vera
Synonyms Aloe barbadensis Mill., Aloe chinensis Steud. ex Baker, Aloe elongata Murray, Aloe flava Pers., Aloe indica Royle, Aloe lanzae Tod., Aloe maculata Forssk. [Illegitimate], Aloe rubescens DC., Aloe variegate Forssk. [Illegitimate], Aloe vulgaris Lam.
Common name Lidah buaya (Peninsular); bunga raja raja (Sabah), barbados aloe, curaçao aloe, coastal aloe, Indian aloe, medicinal aloe, mediterranean aloe, true aloe, west indian aloe
Characteristics A perennial shrub with 30-40 cm high.
Morphology Leaves Whether erect or slightly spreading, about 16 blades per plant, 40-50 cm x 6-7 cm in dimension, narrowly triangular, the upper surface greenish-grey to pale green together with spots and the lower blade usually lighter. The leave margin firm with minute deltoid pale teeth that measure 2 mm long. Root In the form of taproot, 5-10 cm long with abundant secondary root at the top of the soil. The root form a dense group and the secondary shoot that rise from the root gives rise to a new plant. The stem is short
Inflorescence Spike, simple and rarely branched, 60-100 cm tall, densely flowered with yellow, orange or red in colour. The anther and stigma is exserted.
Fruit The form of capsule, ovoid and whitish green. The seed is numerous.
Root In the form of taproot and 5-10 cm long with abundant secondary root at the top of the soil. The root form a dense group and the secondary shoot that rise from the root gives rise to a new plant. The stem is short.
Chemical compound Naphthalene derivative (e.g. aloveroside A, aloveroside B) and phenyl pyrones (e.g. ρ-coumaroyl aloenin, aloenin B, 10-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl aloenin, aloenin-2′-ρ-coumaroyl ester, aloenin aglycone), Methanol extract of dried A. vera powder has been reported to contain chromones (e.g. chrysophanol, 7-hydroxy-2,5-dimethylchromone, saiko-chromone A, 5-((S)-2′-oxo-4′-hydroxypentyl)-2-hydroxymethylchromone, 5-((S)-2′-oxo-4′-hydroxypentyl)-2-(β-glucopyranosyl-oxy-methyl)-chromone, 5-(hydroxymethyl)-7-methoxy-2-methylchromone, 5-((4E)-2′-oxo-pentenyl)-2-hydroxymethylchromone, 7-hydroxy-5-(hydroxymethyl)-2-methylchromone, cinnamoyl-C-glycoside chromone, aloesin, 8-C-glucosyl-(R)-aloesol, 8-C-glucosyl-7-O-methyl-(S)-aloesol, and isoaloeresin D) and antraquinone (e.g. 10-hydroxyaloin A, 10-hydroxyaloin B, aloe-emodin, barbaloin/aloin A, isobarbaloin/aloin B). It contain anthraquinone dimers (e.g. elgnica dimer A and elgnica dimer B), glycoproteins (e.g. aloctin A), fatty acids (e.g. β-sitosterol, cholesterol, campesterol), polysaccharides (e.g. acemannan, neutral and acidic polysaccharides (consisted of glucose, galactose, mannose, glucuronic acid or uronic acid)) and prostaglandins.
Plant part used Leaves and gel
Traditional uses Used as a topical treatment for burns, wounds, various other skin conditions and has also been used orally as a laxative. A. vera gel find its application primarily acted as skin healer and prevents injury of epithelial tissues, cures acne and gives a youthful glow to skin and also acts as extremely powerful laxative. As a resource of functional food, especially for the preparation of health food drinks and other beverages including tea .
Medicinal uses The gel significantly (p<0.05) reduced the vasodilation, increased the postcapillary venular permeability as encountered in the untreated burn, increased the arteriolar diameter up to normal condition, reduced the amount of leukocyte adhesion as observed and showed that the postcapillary venular permeability was not different from the sham controls. It orally to several reagents (kaolin carrageenan, albumin, dextran, gelatin, and mustard) induced-hind paw rats showed remarkable anti-inflammatory activity especially in gelatin-induced and kaolin-induced edema and showed lowest activity for dextran-induced edema, dependent on the presence of anthraquinones in the extract. Aloe-emodin (AE), a hydroxyanthraquinone constituent of A. vera leaves inhibited the growth of human neuroectodermal tumors in mice through the induction of apoptosis, where the selectivity against neuroectodermal tumor cells was founded on a specific energy-dependent pathway of drug incorporation. A combination of acemannan (ACE-M) extracted from A. vera with suboptimal noncytotoxic concentrations of azidothymidine (AZT) synergistically acted to inhibit the replication of HIV-1 or with acyclovir (ACY) to inhibit herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1).
List of country Africa, Southern Arabia, Madagascar, West Indies and Bahamas, Southern USA, Mexico, Central America, Arabia, other parts of Asia and Australia
Aloe vera (Burm.f.,1768)
https://www.globinmed.com/medicinal_herbs/aloe-vera-l-burm-f/ https://www.gbif.org/species/2777724 https://www.nparks.gov.sg/florafaunaweb/flora/1/6/1643
Taxonomy Phylum: Tracheophyta Class: Liliopsida Order: Zingiberales Family: Zingiberaceae Genus: Alpinia Species: Alpinia galanga
Synonyms Alpinia alba (Retz.) Roscoe, Alpinia bifida Warb, Alpinia carnea Griff, Alpinia pyramidata Blume, Alpinia rheedei Wight, Alpinia viridiflora Griff, Amomum galanga (L.) Lour, Amomum medium Lour, Galanga major Garsault [Invalid], Galanga officinalis Salisb, Hellenia alba (Retz.) Willd, Heritiera alba Retz, Languas galanga (L.) Stuntz, Languas pyramidata (Blume) Merr, Languas vulgare J.Koenig Maranta, galanga L., Zingiber galanga (L.) Stokes , Zingiber medium Stokes, Zingiber sylvestre Gaertn.
Common Name Lengkuas, Puar, Lengkuas Biasa, Lengkuas Benar, Lawas, Mengkanang, Galangal, Spice Ginger, Languas , Java Galangal, Galanga, Greater Galangal
Characteristics A perennial herb that can grow up to 3.5 m tall and possesses a creeping rhizome. The plant grows from rhizome underneath the ground.
Morphology Stem Soft, watery, smooth, non-woody and green in color. Rhizome Extremely branches, 2.5-10.0 cm thick, 2.0-4.0 cm in diametre, hard, fibrous and subterete. The colour of rhizome is reddish brown externally and light orange internally. Leaves Distichous, the bottom and top part is small, oblong-lanceolate shaped measure (20-)50(-60) x (4-)9(-15) cm, sheath obviously covered with short and soft hairs at the apex, the petiole is 1-1.5 cm long and hairy, base of the leaf is cuneate and short point at apex. The upper surface of the leaf is dark green and the underneath surface is lighter green, leaf margin is wavy . The ligule present, measuring 1 cm long and truncate. Inflorescence Terminal, many flowered, erect and behave in raceme measure 10-30 cm x 5-7 cm. The bract ovate, up to 2 cm long with each of it subtending of 2-6 flowers in a cincinnus form. Flower Terminal with a large peduncle and bell shaped, measured 12 cm long, fragrant, tubular calyx with white in colour, corolla tube terete, both measured 1 cm long. The corolla has 3 oblong-lanceolate lobes measured 1.5 cm x 0.6 cm, the margin is fully ciliate, greenish white in color . Labellum spoon-shaped, 1.5-2.5 cm x 0.5-0.75 cm, white colour with purple vein, clawed, undulate crenate at the margin and the apex is recurved inwards. The staminode lateral; represent by 2 small pointed lobes at the base of labellum, 7-8 mm long, reddish in colour. Stamen one and erect, anther incurved; 2-2.5 cm long. The style is longer than the stamen, stigma obtriangular. Fruits Globose to ellipsoidal capsules in shape measuring 1-1.5 cm in diametre. The color of fruit is orange-red to wine red.
Chemical compound Kampheride, alpinin, galangin, methyl cinnamate, cincole, 1’-acetoxychavicol acetate, 1’-hydroxychavicol acetate, galantin-3-methyl ether, a-terpineol, 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde, trans-coniferyl diacetate, trans-p-courmaryl diacetate, α-bergamotene, β-bisabolene, borneol, borneol acetate, butanol acetate, campene, carveol I, carveol II, chavicol acetate, citronellol acetate, α-copaene, curcumene, ρ-cymene, ρ-cymenol, eugenol methyl ether, 1’-acetoxyeugenol acetate, trans-b-farnescene, α-humulene, limonene, myrcene, nerol acetate, pentadecane, linalool, propanol acetate, 2-methyl sabinene, santalene, β-sesquiphellandrene, γ-terpinene, terpinolene, tridecane, caryophyllene oxide, 1’hydroxycineol acetate, ρ-hydroxycinnamaldehyde, di-(ρ-hydroxy-cis-styryl)-methane, α-pinene, β-pinene, quercetin, kaempferol, quercetin-3-methyl ether, isorhamnetin and derivative of 4-allylphenol. Other constituents have been reported are methylcinnamate, cineole, camphor, pinene, 1’-acetoxychavicol acetate, 1’-acetoxyeugenol acetate, caryophyllenol I, caryophylleno II, isorhemnetic, kaemferide, galangin-3-methyl ether, eugenol, galangol, cadinene, tannin, phlobaphenes, starch, cedrol, 1,8-cineole, α-pinene, β-pinene, fatty acid methyl esters, trans-4-methoxycinnamyl alcohol, n-7-heptadecene, n-pentadecane, trans-3,4-dimethoxycinnamyl alcohol, trans-4-hydroxycinnamaldehyde, isoborneol, bornyl acetate, camphene, D3-carene, trans-β-cymene, citronellol, α-fenchene, α-fenchol, geranial, geraniol, geranyl acetate, -2-ρ-menthen-1-ol, cis-2-ρ-menthen-1-ol, cis-β-ocimene, α-phellandrene, β-phellandrene, sabinene, trans-sabinene hydrate, α-terpinene, terpinen-4-ol, neral, α-thujene, β-thujone, tricyclene, α-bergamotene, butyl acetate, chavicol, neryl acetate, citronellyl acetate, α-capaene, p-cymenol, ar-cucumene, eugenly acetate, trans-β-farnesene, methyleugenol, 2-methylpropyl acetate, pentadacane, eugenol, 1’-hydroxychavicol acetate, ρ-hydroxy-cinnamaldehyde, [di-(ρ-hydroxy-cis-styryl)]methane, (E)-8(17),12-labddiene-15,16-dial, (E)-8b(17)-epoxylabd-12-ene-15,16-dial, galanals A-B, galanolactone.
Plant part used Leaves and rhizomes
Traditional uses Used as a spice for flavouring foods. It is also used as the ingredient in some herbal preparations. Young shoot and flower of this plant usually used as vegetables. Malay ethnics also use lengkuas as body lotion by boiling the leaves. The leaves are used as ingredients in afterbirth herbal bath. The poultice of the rhizomes that were mixed with vinegar is used to treat eczema. It can also be applied externally on carious teeth to relieve a toothache
Medicinal uses The rhizome of A. galanga has been used to treat fever, pharyngopathy, hiccups, coughs, asthma, bronchitis, headache, inflammations, rheumatoid arthritis, colic, ringworm, puerpera, gastralgia, boborygmus, purify blood, vomiting, diarrhoea, diabetes, tubercular glands, malaria and tinea, pityriasis versicolor, insanity, menstrual pain, afterbirth and desquamation of the soles and hands.
List of country Thailand and Southeast Asia
Alpinia galanga (Linnaeus, 1762)
https://www.globinmed.com/medicinal_herbs/alpinia-galanga-l-willd-105846/ https://www.gbif.org/species/5302225/metrics
Taxonomy Phylum :Tracheophyta Class :Magnoliopsida Order :Gentianales Family :Apocynaceae Genus :Alstonia Species :Alstonia scholaris
Synonyms Echites scholaris L., Pala scholaris (L.) Roberty
Common name Pulai (Peninsular), kacau gitik, gite' ( Sarawak),white cheesewood, milkwood, blackboard tree, common alstonia, devil tree, devil’s wood tree, dita bark, dita bark tree, dried njau, Indian pulai, milky pine, shaitan wood
Characteristics A medium-sized to large tree that can grow up to 10-50(-60) m tall.
Morphology Leaves In whorls of 4-8(-9), narrowly elliptical to obovate, measuring (5-)6-17(-22) cm x (1.5-)2.5-7.5(-8.5) cm, obtuse or rounded at apex and with 25-45(-55) pairs of secondary veins. The petiole is 5-20(-25) mm long. Buttresses Stout and measure up to 10 m tall which spread out at the base for up to 4 m. The outer bark is brown or yellowish-white, smooth but coming off evenly in small papery flakes, with horizontally enlarged lenticels and hoops while the inner bark is yellow to brown usually tinged yellowish and with copious white latex. Inflorescence Mostly formed of dense bunches of flowers and many-flowered while the pedicel is 0-2 mm long. The sepal is soft hairy while the petal is hairy outside. Follicles are hairless.
Chemical compound Picrinine-types of monoterpenoid indole alkaloids (e.g. 5-methoxyaspidophylline, picralinal and 5-methoxystrictamine), C13-norisoprenoids (e.g. megastigmane-3β, 4α, 9-triol and 7-megastigmene-3, 6, 9-triol), 2,3-secofernane triterpenoids (e.g. alstonic acids A and alstonic acids B) and indole alkaloid (e.g. N1-methoxymethyl picrinine) , 19-epischolarine, Nb-methyl-scholarine, Na- metylburnamine, vallesamine Nb-oxide, 6,7-seco-19,20-epoxyyanggustibobine B , lagunamine (19-hydroxytubotaiwine), angustilobine B acid, losbanine (6,7-seco-6-nor-angustilobine B), and tubotaiwine. Bark has been reported to contain 17-O-Acetylechitamine and echitamine. Stem bark has been reported to contain alkaloids (e.g. alstonidine, alstonine, alstovenine, chlorogenic acid, chlorogenine, ditain, ditaine, ditamine, echicaoutchin, echicerin, echiretin, echitamine, echitein, echitenin, echitin, porphyrine, porphyrosine, reserpine, venenatine, villalstonine pleiocarpamine, O-methylmacralstonine, macralstonine O-acetylmacralstonine, villalstonine, macrocarpamine, corialstonine and corialstonidine) and triterpenoids (e.g. lupeol linoleate, lupeol palmitate and alpha-amyrin linoleate). Other alkaloids that had been isolated are nareline methyl ether, nareline ethyl ether , 5-epi-nareline ethyl ether, picrinine, scholaricine and scholarine-N(4)oxide, 12-methoxyechitamidine , 19,20-[E]-vallesamine, angustilobine, B-N4-oxide, 20(S)-tubotaiwine and 6,7-seco-angustilobine.
Plant part used Bark and leaves
Traditional uses The poultice of the roasted and pulverised A. scholaris tender leaves is used as a local stimulant to unhealthy ulcers with foul discharges. The leaves juice together with fresh ginger or zedoary is given to women after confinement. The milky juice has been traditionally used to treat ulcers, and mixed with oil as a remedy for ear-ache. The bark is considered acrid, bitter, heating, oleaginous, appetiser, laxative, anthelmintic, galactagogue, heart problems, asthma, leucoderma, ulcersm, blood problems, “tridosha”, pains, tumours, very good for chronic ulcers and carries of the teeth. It has been used as an astringent tonic, anthelmintic, alterative and antiperiodic. The bark is a valuable remedy in chronic diarrhoea and dysentery as well as catarrhal fever. Bark is used for snake-bite and scorpion-sting in combination with the other drugs. It also used for stomachache by ground the bark with water, strained and drinks it while the residue is being rubbed over the pit of the stomach. The fresh bark in milk is given for leprosy, dyspepsia and as anthelminthic. Root is used to treat pain because of the enlarged liver.
Medicinal uses Have a major alkaloid, alstonine has antitumor activity in YC8 lymphoma and Ehrlich ascites carcinoma cells. Bisindole and villalstonine showed marked activity against human cancer cell lines, MOR-P (adenocarcinoma), COR-L23 (large cell carcinoma) cell lines although in these cells, pleiocarpamine, Omethylmacralstonine and macralstonine were much less active than villalstonine. Oacetylmacralstonine, villalstonine and macrocarpamine were cytotoxic to human cancer cell lines, MOR-P, COR-L23 StMI1 1a (melanoma), Caki-2 (renal cell carcinoma), MCF7 (breast adenocarcinoma) and LS174T (colon adenocarcinoma). The leaves of Alstonia scholaris possessed the highest inhibitory effect for two sugar compounds which are sucrase and maltase when compared with Cratoxylum mangayi and Dillenia indica.
List of country Sri Lanka, India through mainland Southeast Asia, southern China, throughout Malaysia, to northern Australia, Bismarck Archipelago and Solomon Islands.
Alstonia scholaris (Linnaeus,1767)
https://www.globinmed.com/medicinal_herbs/alstonia-scholaris-l-r-br/ https://www.gbif.org/species/5414410 https://www.nparks.gov.sg/florafaunaweb/flora/2/7/2705 https://www.mybis.gov.my/sp/31296
Taxonomy Phylum :Magnoliophyta Class :Magnoliopsida Order :Caryophyllales Family :Amaranthaceae Genus :Alternanthera Species :Alternanthera sessilis
Synonyms Achyranthes linearifolia Sw. ex Wikstr., Achyranthes sessilis (L.) Besser, Achyranthes triandra Roxb., Achyranthes villosa Blanco, Allaganthera forsskaolei Mart., Alternanthera achyranthes Forssk., Alternanthera achyranthoides Hiern, Alternanthera achyranthoides Forssk., Alternanthera angustifolia R.Br., Alternanthera denticulata R.Br., Alternanthera dubia Moq. [Illegitimate], Alternanthera ficoides P.Beauv., Alternanthera glabra Moq., Alternanthera major (Benth.) Domin, Alternanthera micrantha (Benth.) Domin [Illegitimate], Alternanthera nana R.Br., Alternanthera nodiflora R.Br., Alternanthera polygonoides (L.) R.Br. ex Sweet, Alternanthera prostrata D.Don, Alternanthera repens J.F.Gmel., Alternanthera sennii Mattei, Alternanthera sibirica (De Vest ex Roem. & Schult.) Steud., Alternanthera tenella Moq. [Illegitimate], Alternanthera tenuissima Suess., Alternanthera triandra Lam. [Illegitimate], Alternanthera uliginosa (Domin) Dinter, Gomphrena brasiliensis Moq. [Invalid], Gomphrena polygonoides L., Gomphrena sessilis L., Illecebrum sessile (L.) L., Paronychia sessilis (L.) Desf.
Common name Keremak, pudoh, kermak bukit, dwarf copperleaf, sessile-flowered globe amaranth, sessile joyweed, water amaranth
Characteristics A perennial but sometimes annual herb that can grow up to 1 m tall. It is erect, ascending or creeping, often widely branched, with robust taproot, solid stems, sometimes floating in water and then fistulose in lower part and with smooth hairs.
Morphology Leaves Linear-lance-shaped, oblong to ovate or obovate, measuring 1-15 cm x 0.5-3 cm, and hairless or sparsely hairy. The petiole is 1-5 mm long. Flowering heads Sessile with 1-veined tepals or only 3-veined at the very base, shiny white or purplish. The filaments are united at base into a very short cup. Fruit Obreniform, corky and measures about 2 mm long.
Chemical compound β-carotene , ricinoleic acid, myristic, palmitic, stearic, oleic, and linoleic acids, α-spirasterol, uronic acid, β-sitosterol and contain 33.26% of lutein out of the total carotenoids.
Plant part used Whole plant, leaves, shoots and root
Traditional uses Can alleviate dementia. It is also used in the treatment of women’s genitourinary infections, vaginal discharge and post-partum haemorrhage. Used internally against intestinal inflammation and fever, and externally to treat wounds. Entire plant is used as an infusion to treat intestinal cramps, diarrhoea and dysentery and externally as a cooling agent to treat fever. Can treat hepatitis, tight chest, bronchitis, asthma and lung troubles, to stop bleeding and as a hair tonic. Indian used it as a remedy for dysentery, as a cholagogue, abortifacient, febrifuge, to treat snake bites and inflamed wounds and boils. A. sessilis roots are used for stomachache.
Medicinal uses The antioxidant activity of A. sessilis was measured by α,α-diphenyl-β-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging activity. The ethanol extract of A. sessilis showed 70% free radical scavenging activity. In the hydroxyl radical scavenging activity assay, A. sessilis showed 50% hydroxyl radical scavenging activity which in the anti-FeCl2-H2O2-stimulated linoleic acid peroxidation system, A. sessilis (2-8 mg) inhibited malondialdehyde (MDA) formation by 11.6 to 30.6%. A. sessilis reduced the peroxide value of heated groundnut and sunflower oil up to 4 weeks of storage. The polyphenol content of the leaves was 25 mg/g.
List of country America, Africa, Asia and throughout Malaysia.
Alternanthera sessilis (Linnaeus, 1753)
https://www.globinmed.com/medicinal_herbs/alternanthera-sessilis-l-r-br-ex-dc/ https://www.mybis.gov.my/sp/31304 https://www.gbif.org/species/9433052 https://www.nparks.gov.sg/florafaunaweb/flora/2/7/2705